thermobaric bomb blast radius

In addition to the impacts on civilians, thermobaric bombs would cause superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering. In 1998 India tested a "thermonuclear device . Russian forces in Ukraine may have used thermobaric weapons and cluster bombs, according to reports from the Ukraine government and human rights groups. The term thermobaric is derived from the Greek words for 'heat' and 'pressure': thermobarikos (), from thermos () 'hot' + baros () 'weight, pressure' + suffix -ikos (-) '-ic'. [12], Thermobaric explosives apply the principles underlying accidental unconfined vapor cloud explosions, which include those from dispersions of flammable dusts and droplets. How big is a MOAB blast radius? Both the United States and the Soviet Union dabbled in thermobaric weapons from the 1960s onward. Marianne Hanson has previously received funding from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the University of Queensland to conduct research on weapons and international law. For years, America's MOABs have lain dormant: the high potential for collateral had kept the weapon out of action, with smaller and more precise JDAMs and Hellfire . It is a super-powerful non-nuclear bomb that has a blast equivalent to more than 44 tons of TNT. Those at the fringe are likely to suffer many internal, thus invisible injuries, including burst eardrums and crushed inner ear organs, severe concussions, ruptured lungs and internal organs, and possibly blindness. These types of thermobaric weapons have been in development since the 1970s. The U.S. military notably procured a slew of FAE bombs from the BLU and CBU families, some of which were used during the Vietnam War. The Mother of All Bombs- Massive Ordinance Air Blast (MOAB) is different.It's a thermobaric . The war in Ukraine is the latest reminder that we must act to eliminate thermobaric, cluster, and nuclear weapons, under strict international control. [86], During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, CNN reported that Russian forces were moving thermobaric weapons into Ukraine. Associate Professor of International Relations, The University of Queensland. [57], In 1996, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) began development of the PF-97, a portable thermobaric rocket launcher, based on the Soviet RPO-A Shmel. The upper limit has been demonstrated to influence the ignition of fogs above pools of oil strongly. [19] That weakness may be eliminated by designs in which the fuel is preheated well above its ignition temperature so that its cooling during its dispersion still results in a minimal ignition delay on mixing. The photo shows the explosion and the beginning blast of the father of all bombs. The BLU-82B/C-130 weapon system, known under program " Commando Vault " and nicknamed "Daisy Cutter" in Vietnam for its ability to flatten a section of forest into a helicopter landing zone, is an American 15,000-pound (6,800 kg) conventional bomb, delivered from either a C-130 or MC-130 transport aircraft or a CH . Given their devastating impact, and their usefulness against defenders who are dug in to buildings or bunkers, thermobaric bombs have mainly been used in urban environments. Older thermobaric munitions employ a solid or liquid explosive container and two separate explosive charges. Further from the blast zone, pressure can break bones, dislocate eyes, cause internal haemorrhaging . Mark Episkopos is a national security reporter for theNational Interest. It is a huge weapon - a 30ft (9m), 21,600lb (9,800kg), GPS-guided munition that is dropped from the cargo doors of an MC-130 transport plane and detonates shortly before it hits the ground. It is believed the weapon - often called a vacuum bomb - was used in the Chernihiv region, 80 miles north of Kyiv. Thermobaric Explosives incinerate everything in the blast radius, which is about 20 blocks. Copyright 2023 Center for the National Interest All Rights Reserved. The Father-Of-All-Bombs (FOAB) has a payload equivalent to forty-four tons of TNT. TOS-1 Buratino in action | Credit . Audio, 00:00:42, The secret mine that hid the Nazis' stolen treasure. This is significant given developments on the ground in Ukraine, where Russian forces are trying to take control of the capital, Kyiv, and other main cities in the east of the country. [40], The RPO-A and upgraded RPO-M are infantry-portable rocket propelled grenades (RPGs), designed to fire thermobaric rockets. For an optimal experience visit our site on another browser. Video, The secret mine that hid the Nazis' stolen treasure, Russia had confirmed the use of the TOS-1A weapon system in Ukraine, Russia developed a similar device, the Father of all bombs", it could be convicted of a war crime under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, will investigate possible war crimes in Ukraine, in 2001 to try to destroy al-Qaeda forces hiding in the caves of the Tora Bora mountains, Russia used them in its war in Chechnya in 1999, Explosion derails train in Russian border region, Banana artwork in Seoul museum eaten by visitor, NFL player's daughter, aged two, drowns in pool, Indian 'killer' elephant relocated to tiger reserve, Ding becomes China's first male world chess champion, Donald Trump arrives in Scotland on golf visit. takes plays with air . Health and Safety Environmental Agency, 5th and final report, 2008. Thermobaric weapons are controversial because they are much more devastating than conventional explosives of similar size, and have a terrible impact on anyone caught in their blast radius. Description. A TOS-1 blast generates a pressure of 30.02 kilograms per square centimeter, double the amount of pressure generated by conventional bomb blasts. A vacuum bomb. International humanitarian law stipulates what is and is not permissible during warfare. On 3 March 2002, a single 2,000lb (910kg) laser guided thermobaric bomb was used by the United States Air Force against cave complexes in which Al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters had taken refuge in the Gardez region of Afghanistan. Crude versions of thermobaric weapons were developed by Germany during World War Two. [59] Research continues on thermobaric weapons capable of reaching 2,500 degrees. U.K. Ministry of Defence tweeted, "The Russian MoD has confirmed the use of the TOS-1A weapon system in Ukraine. The result is a sustained high pressure that is extremely effective against people and structures. The bomb called the GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast can obliterate everything within a 1,000-yard radius. In September 2007, Russia exploded the largest thermobaric weapon ever made, and claimed that its yield was equivalent to that of a nuclear weapon. Device producing a high-temperature explosion. A thermobaric bomb explosion during the Caucasus 2016 strategic drills. Denise Chow is a reporter for NBC News Science focused on general science and climate change. The MoD also stated that "British pilots' rules of engagement were strict and everything a pilot sees from the cockpit is recorded. [32] A second generation of FAE weapons were based on those, and were used by the United States in Iraq during Operation Desert Storm. A thermobaric weapon might be targeted specifically at military installations and personnel, but its effects cannot be contained to one area. Thermobaric bombs are devastating and effective in urban areas or open conditions, and can penetrate bunkers and other underground locations, starving the occupants of oxygen. the Father of All Bombs is technically a thermobaric aerosol bomb. It is not only thermobaric weapons that cause us concern in the current war. [92], Reports by the rebel fighters of the Free Syrian Army claim the Syrian Air Force used such weapons against residential area targets occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the Battle of Aleppo[93] and in Kafar Batna. Huge air-launched versions have also been designed, specifically to kill defenders in caves and tunnel complexes - the effects of this weapon are at their most severe in enclosed spaces. These can be combined with the RPO-16 grenade launcher, a demonstration of which was witnessed by Oleksandr Turchynov. This article is being reprinted due to reader interest. The detonation of the cloud creates a massive fireball, sucking all the oxygen in the blast radius. FOAB's blast radius is said to be 300 metres, twice that of the BLU-82. The largest Russian bomb contains a charge of approximately seven tons of a liquid fuel that when detonated creates an explosion of 39.9 tons TNT equivalent.[8]. You can imagine if this is contained inside an enclosed space nothing would survive inside that space, Johnson said. Moscow also used them in Chechnya, and has reportedly provided them to separatist rebels in eastern Ukraine. Read about our approach to external linking. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. [5] Many types of thermobaric weapons can be fitted to hand-held launchers,[6][7] and can also be launched from airplanes. Thermobaric weapons are a type of explosive that consumes surrounding oxygen to create a high-temperature explosion within a wide blast radius. It is these very real dangers that led 122 states at the United Nations to vote in favour of developing the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2017. . . [61], In 2009, the British Ministry of Defence (MoD) acknowledged that Army Air Corps (AAC) AgustaWestland Apaches had used AGM-114 Hellfire missiles purchased from the United States against Taliban forces in Afghanistan. The blast wave generated by these explosives is longer and more intense than traditional bombs. The stakes are simply too high to allow these dangers to remain. Thermobaric weapons are generally deployed as rockets or bombs, and they work by releasing fuel and explosive charges. How successful has IS been in Afghanistan? Those at the fringe are likely to suffer many internal, invisible injuries, including burst eardrums and crushed inner ear organs, severe concussions, ruptured lungs and internal organs, and possibly blindness." Different fuels can be used, including toxic powdered metals and organic . Explore in 3D: The dazzling crown that makes a king. The blast wave generated by these explosives is . The most common weapon of this type is the fuel-air explosive (FAE), a two-charge weapon that disperses and detonates a chemical cloud, creating a powerful blast wave that is particularly potent against fortified or otherwise enclosed positions like bunkers and foxholes. ", 10.1002/1521-4087(200211)27:5<300::AID-PREP300>3.0.CO;2-#, High explosive disseminator for a high explosive air bomb, Compatibility Of Thermobaric Mixtures Based On Isopropyl Nitrate And Metal Powders, Fundamental and Applied Studies of Fuel-Air Detonation, Advanced Thermobaric Explosive Compositions, New Thermobaric Materials and Weapon Concepts, "Backgrounder on Russian Fuel Air Explosives ("Vacuum Bombs") | Human Rights Watch", "Main Types of Artillery Ammunition in 1914-1918", "What are thermobaric weapons? A TOS-1 blast is twice as powerful as most conventional bomb blasts, and victims close to the blast radius are instantly crushed to death. Write an article and join a growing community of more than 163,400 academics and researchers from 4,609 institutions. [13] Such dust explosions happened most often in flour mills and their storage containers, and later in coal mines, prior to the 20th century. The thermobaric weapon, also known as an aerosol bomb or fuel air explosive, is a two-stage munition. Russia, which has launched military action against Ukraine, has Father Of All Bombs in its weaponry. Several variants in the prolific KAB family of guided bombs come with thermobaric warheads, as does the S-8 rocket and several other types of Russian air-launched munitions. Oksana Markarova, Ukraines ambassador to the United States, said Monday that the Russian military had used a vacuum bomb, which sucks oxygen from the air to trigger a huge explosion. Cluster munitions were banned under an international convention in 2008. The US holds around 5,500 nuclear weapons of its own, and its nuclear policy promises nuclear devastation to opponents. Russia has systems right across the spectrum from quite small tactical weapons, to huge, air-launched bombs. This created an explosion equivalent to a 44-tonne conventional bomb - making it the biggest non-nuclear explosive device in the world. Did this woman die because her genitals were cut? [36], FAEs were reportedly used against China in the 1969 Sino-Soviet border conflict. [55], United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research categorizes these weapons as "enhanced blast weapons" and there was pressure to regulate these around 2010, again to no avail.[73]. [105], International law does not prohibit the use of thermobaric munitions, fuel-air explosive devices, or vacuum bombs against military targets. A thermobaric bomb explosion during the Caucasus 2016 strategic drills. In World War II, the German Wehrmacht attempted to develop a vacuum bomb,[29] under the direction of the Austrian physicist Mario Zippermayr. Those use various means to create a cloud of burning particles with a wide blast radius and intense fireball. A thermobaric weapon, also called an aerosol bomb, . There has long been an understanding that even wars have their limits: while some weapons are considered legal, others are not, precisely because they violate key principles of humanitarian law. Some military observers havecast doubton the bombs capabilities and technical nature, which remain unconfirmed at this point. ", "Massenvernichtungswaffe: Grovaters Vakuumbombe", "Munitions Thermobaric Munitions and their Medical Effects! If you dont die immediately, the pressure would rupture your internal organs. This HESH round packs thermobaric explosives into the tank shells to increase the effectiveness against enemy bunkers and light armoured vehicles. Capable of firing a barrage of thermobaric 'flamethrower' rockets, the weapon can wipe out everything within a 300-yard radius. A thermobaric weapon is a type of explosive that utilizes oxygen from the surrounding air to generate an intense, high-temperature explosion, and in practice the blast wave such a weapon produces is typically significantly longer in duration than a conventional condensed explosive. Audio, 00:00:42'Bunker Buster' even bigger than MOAB. [72], Mexico, Switzerland and Sweden presented in 1980 a joint motion to the United Nations to prohibit the use of thermobaric weapons, to no avail. After the explosion of the main charge ScienceDirect of a thermobaric/enhanced blast explosive (TBX/EBX) occurs, the post-detonation reaction (namely, burning of Al, etc.) [89][90], During the War in Afghanistan, British forces, including the Army Air Corps and Royal Air Force, used thermobaric AGM-114N Hellfire missiles against the Taliban. These shells burned for approximately 2 minutes after the shell exploded and spread the burning elements in every direction. Johnson said thermobaric munitions are sometimes known as a poor mans nuclear weapon, because they can obliterate any humans in the vicinity. Read more: (Int.) If the fuel deflagrates but does not detonate, victims will be severely burned and will probably also inhale the burning fuel. The GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast Bomb (MOAB) - or, in military speak, Mother of All Bombs - was launched on Thursday. The weapon was developed for use in the Iraq war - at a reported cost of $16m (13m) each - and was first tested in 2003, but never used in action - until now. It can also be called as Aerosol bombs, Vacuum bombs or fuel-air explosives. The thermobaric device yields the equivalent of 44 tons of TNT using about seven tons of a new type of high explosive. Different fuels can be used, including toxic powdered metals and organic matter containing oxidant. They were not widely developed until the 1960s, when the US used them in Vietnam. Russia's big-bomb thermobaric leap came in 2007, when it unveiled its Father of All Bombs (FOAB), a true thermobaric munition, (unlike the BLU-82), claimed to be four times more powerful than the MOAB. Image source, Getty Images. The GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast is the largest conventional bomb . One of Russias latest short-range ballistic missile systems, theIskander-M,is compatible with thermobaric warheads. A fuel-air explosive. When such a weapon is dropped or launched, the first charge detonates to disperse a . Thermobaric weapons are generally deployed as rockets or bombs, and they work by releasing fuel and explosive charges. A second charge ignites that cloud, creating a fireball, a huge shock wave, and a vacuum as it sucks up all surrounding oxygen. One of the most prominent entries in Russias thermobaric roster is theTOS-1multiple launch rocket system and its modernized TOS-1A/TOS-2 variants. Despite the horrifying destruction that thermobaric munitions can cause, there are no laws that ban their use in warfare, though they are widely condemned by nongovernmental organizations. . The bomb's thin aluminium casing was designed specifically to maximise the blast radius. [46] The 300mm (12in) 9M55S thermobaric cluster warhead rocket was built to be fired from the BM-30 Smerch MLRS. At some point, the Russians are going to bump into something, whether its in one of the cities or a defensive position, and that will be their weapon of choice.. The GM-94 is a 43mm (1.7in) pump-action grenade launcher designed mainly to fire thermobaric grenades for close combat. Putin accused of using devastating 'vacuum bomb' in Ukraine", "Libye l'Otan utilise une bombe FAE | Politique, Algrie", "Thermobaric and enhanced blast explosives (TBX and EBX)", A 'Crushing' Victory: Fuel-Air Explosives and Grozny 2000, "Ukraine conflict: What is a vacuum or thermobaric bomb? The bomb is designed to damage underground facilities and tunnels. It pulls oxygen out of the air and produces an effect similar to . The target was said to be a network of tunnels operated by the so-called Islamic State in Achin district. The FOAB explodes mid-air, combining with atmospheric oxygen to extend the blast radius as it vaporizes targets and collapses structures. [53] The Russian bomb contains a charge of approximately 7 tons of a liquid fuel, such as pressurized ethylene oxide, mixed with energy-rich nanoparticles, such as aluminum, surrounding a high explosive burster that when detonated created an explosion equivalent to 39.9 tons of TNT. Fuel-air explosives are one of the best known types of thermobaric bombs, and are popularly known in Russia as vaccuum bombs. Sebastian Roblin, a military expert, writing for . The weapon dates back to World War 2 and were also deployed in Afghanistan, Iraq and even Vietnam. The MoD stated that 20 missiles, described as "blast fragmentation warheads", were used in 2008 and a further 20 in 2009. [101][102], Jemaah Islamiyah bombers used a shock-dispersed solid fuel charge,[103] based on the thermobaric principle,[104] to attack the Sari nightclub during the 2002 Bali bombings. According to a US Central Intelligence Agency study,[26] "the effect of an FAE explosion within confined spaces is immense. Markarova did not provide additional details and NBC News has not independently verified that the weapon has been used in Ukraine, but Russian thermobaric rocket launchers have been photographed entering the country by a CNN team. This temperature allows not only for the destruction of the enemy, but are also able to disable lightly armored vehicles. This can be launched as a rocket or dropped as a bomb from aircraft. However, much earlier, in September 2007, Russia launched the world's largest thermobaric weapon, resulting in a 39.9-ton explosion. The United Kingdom has accused Russia of deploying thermobaric weapons systems in Ukraine, raising fears there could be an escalation of the damage being done as Moscow intensifies its assault on . . 19,4 (1976). [20], In confinement, a series of reflective shock waves is generated,[21][22] which maintain the fireball and can extend its duration to between 10and50ms as exothermic recombination reactions occur. ", "Better than laser?China's thermobaric bomb reaches 2500 degrees high temperature, once exported, the United States will be miserable? Thermobaric bombs or vacuum bombs are controversial because they are much more devastating than conventional explosives of similar size. Within a 6-km (3.7-mile) radius of a 1-megaton bomb, blast waves will produce 180 tonnes of force on the walls of all two-storey buildings, and wind speeds of 255 km/h (158 mph). The blast wave can destroy reinforced buildings, equipment, and kill or injure people. Piston-type afterburning[clarification needed] is also believed to occur in such structures, as flame-fronts accelerate through it.[24]. A TOS-1 blast is said to generate a pressure of 30.02 kg per square centimeter, which is double the amount of pressure generated by conventional bomb blasts, and regular air pressure is 0.98 kg per square centimeter. creating a huge blast, flames, a large pressure wave and a vacuum as oxygen from the surrounding air is sucked up. Its just a horrible, devastating weapon, said David Johnson, a retired U.S. Army colonel and a principal researcher at the Rand Corporation, a nonprofit policy research organization headquartered in California. . Meanwhile, the USSR and its Russian successor found a wide range of uses of thermobaric systems. [31] The CBU-55 FAE fuel-air cluster bomb was mostly developed by the US Naval Weapons Center (NWC) at China Lake, California.[32]. This explosive is used to make Nuclear Explosives. Father Of All Bombs can cause damage in a radius of 300 meters. shown thermobaric rocket launchers on Russias TOS-1 vehicles. The potential use of vacuum bombs is of particular concern because these thermobaric munitions are designed to cause immense destruction. The S-8's 122mm (4.8in) brother, the S-13, has the S-13D and S-13DF thermobaric variants. The secret mine that hid the Nazis' stolen treasure. See Nanofuel/Oxidizers For Energetic Compositions John D. Sullivan and Charles N. Kingery (1994), Slavica Terzi, Mirjana Daki Kolundija, Milovan Azdejkovi and Gorgi Minov (2004). The antipersonnel effect of the blast wave is more severe in foxholes and tunnels and in enclosed spaces, such as bunkers and caves. A thermobaric bomb uses some type of arousal that turns the oxygen in the air surrounding the impact as fuel for a massive fiery explosion. Since the most common FAE fuels, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, are highly toxic, undetonated FAE should prove as lethal to personnel caught within the cloud as with most chemical agents. Its primary fireball blast radius is 300 meters, while that of the MOAB . Russias military has invested relentlessly into thermobaric weapons since the Soviet collapse, and there is no indication that this long-standing trend will change anytime soon. It comes by many names. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. A thermobaric weapon might be targeted specifically at military installations and personnel, but its effects cannot be contained to one area. [47] The Iskander-M theatre ballistic missile can also carry a 700kg (1,540lb) thermobaric warhead.[48]. Putin is not the only one to have made threats like this. [66], The design and the development of the round was taken up by Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE). The US relied on them in its attempts to eliminate al-Qaida in the mountains in Afghanistan. If true, this represents an escalation in brutality that should alarm us all. The grenades, of approximately 600 grams, "create a two second fire cloud with a volume of not less than 13 m, inside of which the temperature reaches 2,500 degrees. [77][29], The TOS-1 system was test fired in Panjshir Valley during the SovietAfghan War in the late 1980s. [14], A typical weapon consists of a container packed with a fuel substance, the center of which has a small conventional-explosive "scatter charge". Efforts to ban these weapons have not yet produced a clear prohibition. [63] In the report, it was stated that AGM-114N Hellfire missiles which contained a thermobaric warhead were used by RAF attack drones in Syria. Sci. A dedicated carrier of thermobaric weapons is the purpose-built TOS-1, a 24-tube MLRS designed to fire 220mm (8.7in) thermobaric rockets. Its blast radius is 1 mile and yield is equivalent to 11 tons, or 22,000 lbs, of TNT. Most conventional explosives consist . Copyright 20102023, The Conversation US, Inc. Thermobaric weapons create a high-temperature fireball and a massive shockwave that literally sucks the air out of any living being in the vicinity. The KAB-1500S GLONASS/GPS guided 1,500kg (3,300lb) bomb also has a thermobaric variant. Comb. [30], FAEs were developed by the United States for use in the Vietnam War. . Strehlow, 14th. A significant part of the effect of weapons like the MOAB is said to be psychological - to instil terror by the massive force of the blast. officially the Aviation Thermobaric Bomb of Increased Power, in 2007. Fears have risen over the use of thermobaric weapons by Russia after the Ukrainian ambassador to the US said a vacuum bomb another term for the weapon had been used during the invasion. The continual combustion of the outer layer of fuel molecules, as they come into contact with the air, generates added heat which maintains the temperature of the interior of the fireball, and thus sustains the detonation. A TOS-1 blast is twice as powerful as most conventional bomb blasts, and victims close to the blast radius are instantly crushed to death. Thermobaric weapons are a type of explosive that consumes surrounding oxygen to create a high-temperature explosion within a wide blast radius. International law says Putin's war against Ukraine is illegal. The RPO-A and either the TGB-7V thermobaric rocket from the RPG-7 or rockets from either the RShG-1 or the RShG-2 is claimed to have been used by the Spetsnaz during the initial storming of the school. The accusation adds to mounting concerns voiced by several human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, that Russia is conducting indiscriminate attacks in densely populated civilian areas that could constitute war crimes. An improved version called the PF-97A was introduced in 2008. The typical blast wave of a thermobaric weapon lasts significantly longer than that of a conventional explosive. . [99], Thermobaric and fuelair explosives have been used in guerrilla warfare since the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing in Lebanon, which used a gas-enhanced explosive mechanism that was probably propane, butane, or acetylene. 1 mile Just how powerful is the MOAB? More recently, international organizations haveallegedthat TOS-1Ms, presumably supplied by the Kremlin, were being operated by Russian-backed separatists in the Donbass region of eastern Ukraine. Does that matter? Its just a horrible, devastating weapon, said David Johnson, a retired U.S. Army colonel and a principal researcher at the Rand Corporation. A fuelair explosive (FAE) device consists of a container of fuel and two separate explosive charges. International law says Putin's war against Ukraine is illegal. The goal of the programme was to develop a thermobaric bomb, the BEAC (Bomba Explosiva de Aire-Combustible). In a tweet, the MoD said that Russia had confirmed the use of the TOS-1A weapon system in Ukraine. In 2003, the US tested a 9,800kg bomb, nicknamed the "Mother of all bombs". There is a point at which even if a war is deemed legitimate or just violence must not involve weapons that are excessively cruel or inhumane. Read more: A second charge then detonates the cloud, resulting in a huge fireball, a massive blast wave and a vacuum which sucks up all surrounding oxygen. Conventional countermeasures such as barriers (sandbags) and personnel armour are not effective against thermobaric weapons. The Russian military calls the units "heavy flamethrowers", which can fire rockets up to 9km. Gases are burnt . Trocano (toknu) is a thermobaric weapon similar in design to the United States' MOAB weapon or Russia's FOAB. When dropped from a jet, it can produce similar effects as that of a small tactical nuclear weapon. [95] A United Nations panel of human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government had used thermobaric bombs against the rebellious town of Al-Qusayr in March 2013. . Thermobaric weapons have been around for decades, and reportedly used to clear helicopter landing zones by US forces in Vietnam. President Vladimir Putin has hinted strongly that he would potentially be willing to use them, putting Russian nuclear forces on high alert and warning that countries which interfere in the invasion will face consequences you have never seen. Thermobaric weapons are widely considered to be among the most destructive non-nuclear explosives, and for good reason.

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