five motivational orientations in the learning process

The interventions that have shown sustained effects on aspects of motivation and learning are based on relatively brief activities. However a third dimension of goal orientation has recently been added: performance-avoidance goal orientation. Five Counseling Theories and Approaches June 1, 2015 Psychotherapy theories provide a framework for therapists and counselors to interpret a clients behavior, thoughts, and feelings and help them navigate a clients journey from diagnosis to post-treatment. Learners goals may reflect the classrooms goal structure or the values teachers communicate about learning through their teaching practices (e.g., how the chairs are set up or whether the teacher uses cooperative learning groups) (see Kaplan and Midgley, 1999; Urdan et al., 1998). Motivation to learn is fostered for learners of all ages when they perceive the school or learning environment is a place where they belong and when the environment promotes their sense of agency and purpose. Within the category of performance-approach goals, researchers have identified both self-presentation goals (wanting others to think you are smart) and normative goals (wanting to outperform others) (Hulleman et al., 2010). In a study by Nasir and McKinney de Royston (2013), students were asked to solve problems involving averages and percentages in the context of either basketball or classroom math. Table 6-2 summarizes a longstanding view of how the prevailing classroom goal structureoriented toward either mastery goals or performance goalsaffects the classroom climate for learning. A persons motivation to persist in learning in spite of obstacles and setbacks is facilitated when goals for learning and achievement are made explicit, are congruent with the learners desired outcomes and motives, and are supported by the learning environment, as judged by the learner; this perspective is illustrated in Box 6-2. WebIn a substantial review, Murphy and Alexander ( 2000) have identified a corpus of 20 academic achievement-related motivational terms that can be grouped into four clusters: (a) goal, including ego-involved goal, task-involved goal, learning goal, mastery goal, performance goal, work-avoidance goal, and social goal; (b) intrinsic versus extrinsic Table 6-1 shows how learners mindsets can relate to their learning goals and behaviors. Some interventions focus on the psychological mechanisms that affect students construal of the learning environment and the goals they develop to adapt to that environment. In the case of women and math, for instance, women perform more poorly on the math test than would be expected given their actual ability (as demonstrated in other contexts) (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Research on motivation has been strongly driven by theories that overlap and contain similar concepts. Typically, in language learning theorizing, a goal orientation is viewed as a reason, or a cluster of reasons for learning the language. Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into account the students subjective experience in and out of school. Children and adults who focus mainly on their own performance (such as on gaining recognition or avoiding negative judgments) are. Study participants who adopted performance goals were found to be concerned with communicating competence, prioritizing areas of high ability, and avoiding challenging tasks or areas in which they perceived themselves to be weaker than others (Darnon et al., 2007; Elliot and Murayama, 2008). However, educators can take into account the influences that research has identified as potentially causing, exacerbating, or ameliorating the effects of stereotype threat on their own students motivation, learning, and performance. Learners tend to persist in learning when they face a manageable challenge (neither too easy nor too frustrating) and when they see the value and utility of what they are learning. Several studies have replicated this finding (Beilock et al., 2008; Dar-Nimrod and Heine, 2006; Good et al., 2008; Spencer et al., 1999), and the finding is considered to be robust, especially on high-stakes tests such as the SAT (Danaher and Crandall, 2008) and GRE. Behavior-based theories of learning, which conceptualized motivation in terms of habits, drives, incentives, and reinforcement schedules, were popular through the mid-20th century. Cognitive theories, for example, have focused on how learners set goals for learning and achievement and how they maintain and monitor their progress toward those goals. However, research regarding the impact of performance goals on academic outcomes has yielded mixed findings (Elliot and McGregor, 2001; Midgley et al., 2001). The meaning of motivation and three main approaches to motivational psychology: expectancy-value theory, goal-directed theory and the self-determination Perceived classroom goals are also strongly linked to learners academic efficacy in the transition to middle school. Researchers have identified several actions educators can take that may help to manage stereotype threat. When learners with mastery goals work to recall a previously learned piece of information, they also activate and strengthen memory for the other, related information they learned. It also appears that the learner must tie her identity to the domain of skills. This means the identity a person takes on at any moment is contingent on the circumstances, A number of studies indicate that a positive identification with ones racial or ethnic identity supports a sense of school belonging, as well as greater interest, engagement, and success in academic pursuits. In stark contrast, less than one-quarter (24%) of those praised for effort opted for performance information. Theoretical approaches are an understandably integral part of the therapeutic For example, they argued that East Asian cultures tend to emphasize collectivistic goals, which promote a comparatively interdependent self-construal in which the self is experienced as socially embedded and ones accomplishments are tied to the community. SOURCE: Adapted from Ames and Archer (1988, Tbl. However, other studies have not replicated these findings (e.g., Dee, 2015; Hanselman et al., 2017), so research is needed to determine for whom and under which conditions values-affirmation approaches may be effective. Problem solving is facilitated when the salient mindset is well matched to the task at hand, suggesting that flexibility in cultural mindset also may promote flexible cognitive functioning and adaptability to circumstances (Vezzali et al., 2016). Evidence suggests that the opportunity to make meaningful choices during instruction, even if they are small, can support autonomy, motivation, and ultimately, learning and achievement (Moller et al., 2006; Patall et al., 2008, 2010).2. This paper reports on a study of five motivational orientations in continuing education among working adults. So, what was the problem? Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features? In research that confronted women with negative gender-based stereotypes about their performance in mathematics but prompted them to think of other aspects of their identity, the women performed on par with men and appeared to be buffered against the deleterious effects of gender-based stereotypes. It is characterized by a learners enduring connection to a domain and willingness to re-engage in learning in that domain over time (Schiefele, 2009). Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. If competence is the main motivator Two forms of learner interest have been identified. At the end of the year, students in the growth mindset condition had significantly improved their math grades compared to students who only learned about study skills. The subjective and personal nature of the learners experiences and the dynamic nature of the learning environment require that motivational interventions be flexible enough to take account of changes in the individual and in the learning environment. For example, women are given a test in math. This integration often means taking on the particular knowledge, goals, and practices valued by that group (Nasir, 2002). How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures provides a much-needed update incorporating insights gained from this research over the past decade. At other times, features of the learning environment energize a state of wanting to know more, which activates motivational processes. Many students experience a decline in motivation from the primary grades through high school (Gallup, Inc., 2014; Jacobs et al., 2002; Lepper et al., 2005). The study Individual or personal interest is viewed as a relatively stable attribute of the individual. 3 Types of Learning and the Developing Brain, Appendix A: History of the How People Learn Studies and Their Use, Appendix B: List of Relevant Reports Published by the National Academies Press, Appendix C: Study Populations in Research on Learning, Appendix D: Committee and Staff Biographies, Pursues opportunities to bolter self-esteem, High grades, performing better than others. Improvements in the ability to clearly define, distinguish among, and measure motivational constructs could improve the validity and usefulness of intervention research. WebFor an entity theorist, the meaning of effort is "The harder you try, the dumber you therefore must be." For example, a persons view as to whether intelligence is fixed or malleable is likely to link to his views of the malleability of his own abilities (Hong and Lin-Siegler, 2012). Research has also linked learners beliefs about learning and achievement, or mindsets, with students pursuit of specific types of learning goals (Maehr and Zusho, 2009). 4 The 2006 study included 119 African American and 119 European American students; the 2009 study was a 2-year follow-up with the same sample. These kinds of performance-avoidance goals have been associated with maladaptive learning behaviors including task avoidance (Middleton and Midgley, 1997; sixth-grade students), reduced effort (Elliot, 1999), and self-handicapping (Covington, 2000; Midgley et al., 1996). WebLearning to teach is construed as a process of learning to understand, develop, and use oneself effectively. The downside of this motivation is that learners are more likely to drop your course if they fall into a rut and become discouraged. When learners perceive mastery goals are valued in the classsroom, they are more likely, TABLE 6-2 Achievement Goals and Classroom Climate. Intrinsic motivation is the experience of wanting to engage in an activity for its own sake because the activity is interesting and enjoyable or helps to achieve goals one has chosen. (See also the work of Chan and Lai [2006] on students in Hong Kong; Hulleman et al. A mastery-oriented structure in the classroom is positively correlated with high academic competency and negatively related to disruptive behaviors. . In stark contrast, when asked to solve the problems in classroom math terms, players were visibly distressed. WebCompetition is a motivational strategy that generally creates achievement orientations among the learners. In contrast, situational interest refers to a psychological state that arises spontaneously in response to specific features of the task or learning environment (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Sensitivity to these learning-related stereotypes appears as early as second grade (Cvencek et al., 2011) and grows as children enter adolescence (McKown and Strambler, 2009). For example, some research suggests that intrinsic motivation to persist at a task may decrease if a learner receives extrinsic rewards contingent on performance. Not a MyNAP member yet? These differences were presumed to be fixed and to dictate learners responses to features in the learning environment (method of instruction, incentives, and so on) and their motivation and performance. As learners experience success at a task or in a domain of learning, such as reading or math, the value they attribute to those activities can increase over time (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002). People who adopt a mastery rather than a performance goal show a greater tendency toward the following except a preference to work on the task by themselves without asking for help from others Although cultures may vary on average in their emphasis on individualism and collectivism, learners may think in either individualistic and collectivistic terms if primed to do so (Oyserman et al., 2009). A recent study examined interventions designed to boost the sense of belonging among African American college freshmen (Walton and Cohen, 2011). In an influential paper, Markus and Kitayama (1991) distinguished between independent and interdependent self-construals and proposed that these may be associated with individualistic or collectivistic goals. Thus, teaching strategies that use rewards to capture and stimulate interest in a topic (rather than to drive compliance), that provide the student with encouragement (rather than reprimands), and that are perceived to guide student progress (rather than just monitor student progress) can foster feelings of autonomy, competence, and academic achievement (e.g., Vansteenkist et al., 2004). The research we discuss includes both laboratory and field research from multiple disciplines, such as developmental psychology, social psychology, education, and cognitive psychology. In a large study of students across several nations that examined seven different dimensions related to self-construal (Vignoles et al., 2016), researchers found neither a consistent contrast between Western and non-Western cultures nor one between collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Because of the anticipatory nature of this phase, task analysis depends on a number of key sources of motivation, such as goal orientations, interest, task value, and self-efficacy or outcome expectations. People who come from backgrounds where college attendance is not the norm may question whether they belong in college despite having been admitted. For example, researchers who study psychological aspects of motivation take a motivational systems perspective, viewing motivation as a set of psychological mechanisms and processes, such as those related to setting goals, engagement in learning, and use of self-regulatory strategies (Kanfer, 2015; Linnenbrink-Garcia and Patall, 2016; Yeager and Walton, 2011). Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text. Stereotype threat is believed to undermine performance by lowering executive functioning and heightening anxiety and worry about what others will think if the individual fails, which robs the person of working memory resources. By contrast, learners with performance goals tend to focus on learning individual bits of information separately, which improves speed of learning and immediate recall but may undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. In the performance phase, self-control and self-observation are the main processes. This volume addresses motivation in language learning You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. These students experience a form of stereotype threat, where prevailing cultural stereotypes about their position in the world cause them to doubt themselves and perform more poorly (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Motivation to persevere may be strengthened when students can perceive connections between their current action choices (present self) and their future self or possible future identities (Gollwitzer et al., 2011; Oyserman et al., 2015). Over the life span, academic achievement goals also become linked to career goals, and these may need to be adapted over time. From the perspective of self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000), learners are intrinsically motivated to learn when they perceive that they have a high degree of autonomy and engage in an activity willingly, rather than because they are being externally controlled. The Five Pillars of Adult Learning Theory Self-Concept The Adult Learning Experience Readiness to Learn Orientation to Learning Motivation to Learn The Four External rewards can be an important tool for motivating learning behaviors, but some argue that such rewards are harmful to intrinsic motivation in ways that affect persistence and achievement. Researchers are beginning to develop interventions motivated by theories of motivation to improve student motivation and learning. Mindsets develop over time as a function of learning experiences and cultural influences. When speaking about basketball, players spoke like expertsthey were confident; they sat up straight and answered in relaxed, even vocal tones. According to self-efficacy theory, learning develops from multiple sources, including perceptions of ones past performance, vicarious experiences, performance feedback, affective/physiological states, and social influences. A recent field study, for example, suggests that incentives do not always lead to reduced engagement after the incentive ends (Goswami and Urminsky, 2017). Studies such as these are grounded in different theories of motivation related to the learners cognition, affect, or behavior and are intended to affect different aspects of motivation. Individuals tend to engage in activities that connect them to their social identities because doing so can support their sense of belonging and esteem and help them integrate into a social group. For example, Hoffman and Haussler (1998) found that high school girls displayed significantly more interest in the physics related to the working of a pump when the mechanism was put into a real-world context: the use of a pump in heart surgery. In contrast, they argued, the prevailing North American culture tends to emphasize individualistic goals and an individualistic self-construal that prioritizes unique traits, abilities, and accomplishments tied to the self rather than to the community. Some evidence suggests that these and other multicultural priming interventions improve creativity and persistence because they cue individuals to think of problems as having multiple possible solutions. To be negatively affected, a person must be exposed to and perceive a potential cue in the environment and be aware of a stereotype about the social group with which he identifies (Aronson et al., 1999). Although students achievement goals are relatively stable across the school years, they are sensitive to changes in the learning environment, such as moving from one classroom to another or changing schools (Friedel et al., 2007). One such strategy is to support learners in trying out multiple ideas before settling on the final idea. The next section examines types of goals and research on their influence. The perception of choice also may affect learning by fostering situational interest and engagement (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013). WebThis paper analyzes and determines the various socio-psychological orientations of undergraduate students studying General English in universities of Sirjan. These students perceived failure as a reflection of their inability and typically responded to failure with frustration, shame, and anxiety. Another important aspect of self-attribution involves beliefs about whether one belongs in a particular learning situation. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977), which is incorporated into several models of motivation and learning, posits that the perceptions learners have about their competency or capabilities are critical to accomplishing a task or attaining other goals (Bandura, 1977). Related research indicates that enhanced motivation is dependent on learners taking charge of their own learning (Lamb 2001; da Silva 2002; Sakui 2002; Takagi 2003; Ushioda 2003, 2006). A broad constellation of factors and circumstances may either trigger or undermine students desire. The effects of negative stereotypes about African American and Latino students are among the most studied in this literature because these stereotypes have been persistent in the United States (Oyserman et al., 1995). Motivation is distinguishable from general cognitive functioning and helps to explain gains in achievement independent of scores on intelligence tests (Murayama et al., 2013). Learners who focus on learning rather than performance or who have intrinsic motivation to learn tend to set goals for themselves and regard increasing their competence to be a goal. The influence of motivational orientations This perspective also suggests the potential benefits of encouraging learners to think about problems and goals from different cultural perspectives. For example, in cross-cultural studies of academic goals, Dekker and Fischer (2008) found that gaining social approval in achievement contexts was particularly important for students who had a collectivist perspective. Motivational models consider motivation a construct to explain the beginning, direction and perseverance of a conduct toward a certain academic goal that centers on inherent questions to the learning process, academic performance and/or the self, social evaluation or to even avoid work. Social dimensions of identity are linked to social roles or characteristics that make one recognizable as a member of a group, such as being a woman or a Christian (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). These findings highlight an important feature of stereotype threat: it is not a characteristic solely of a person or of a context but rather a condition that results from an interaction between the two. Brief interventions to enhance motivation and achievement appear to share several important characteristics. [2010]; and the work of King [2015] on students in the Philippines.). This body of work seems to suggest that though there were differences, the performance avoidance may also have different outcomes in societies in which individualism is prioritized than in more collectivistic ones. However, this meta-analysis was small: only 74 published and unpublished papers met criteria for inclusion, and the included studies involved a wide range of theoretical perspectives, learner populations, types of interventions, and measured outcomes. In this chapter, we provide updates and additional elaboration on research in this area. The authors found that the designs developed separately were more effective and concluded that when students refined their initial designs, they were trapped by their initial decisions. The effectiveness of brief interventions appears to stem from their impact on the individuals construal of the situation and the motivational processes they set in motion, which in turn support longer-term achievement. Values-affirmation exercises in which students write about their personal values (e.g., art, sports, music) have bolstered personal identity, reduced threat, and improved academic performance among students experiencing threat (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009; Martens et al., 2006). Some evidence suggests that it is possible to change students self-attributions so that they adopt a growth mindset, which in turn improves their academic performance (Blackwell et al., 2007). For instance, when learner interest is low, students may be less engaged and more likely to attend to the learning goals that require minimal attention and effort. Fourth, these brief interventions focus on reducing barriers to student motivation rather than directly increasing student motivation. To better explain cultural variation, the authors suggested an ecocultural perspective that takes into account racial/ethnic identity. Learners mastery and performance goals may also influence learning and achievement through indirect effects on cognition. In this section, the committee discusses three specific lines of research that illustrate the importance of culturally mediated views of the self and social identities to learners perceptions of learning environments, goals, and performance. However, more experimental research is needed to determine whether interventions designed to influence such mindsets benefit learners. This may also be the case when learners feel valued and respected for their demonstrations of expertise, as when a teacher asks a student who correctly completed a challenging homework math problem to explain his solution to the class. In a prototypical experiment to test stereotype threat, a difficult achievement test is given to individuals who belong to a group for whom a negative stereotype about ability in that achievement domain exists. Other work (Cameron et al., 2005) suggests that when rewards are inherent in the achievement itselfthat is, when rewards for successful completion of a task include real privileges, pride, or respectthey can spur intrinsic motivation. Ready to take your reading offline? As part of the Motivational Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) designed to identify various motivation orientations and learning strategies, intrinsic goal orientation is represented as students intrinsic personal goals and orientations put forward to achieve success within a specific course (Pintrich et al., 1991). For example, an adolescent who aspires to become a physician but who continually fails her basic science courses may need to protect her sense of competence by either building new strategies for learning science or revising her occupational goals. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures, Future Identities and Long-Term Persistence, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON MOTIVATION, Cross-Cultural Differences in Learners Self-Construals, Kitayama, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit, 1997. 2 The 2008 study was a meta-analysis, so the study populations are not described. WebDescription. Measures and instruments Intrinsic and Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom. information. The practice of displaying the names and accomplishments of past successful students is one way educators try to help current students see the connection. This letter suggests that although the student came to school ready to engage with his teacher about interesting ideas and to learn new academic skills, the teachers strategy for managing the class caused him to infer that his teachers main goal was to control his behavior, rather than to help him learn. Praise is important, but what is praised makes a difference (see Box 6-1). 3 When an individual encounters negative stereotypes about his social identity group in the context of a cognitive task, he may underperform on that task; this outcome is attributed to stereotype threat (Steele, 1997). less likely to seek challenges and persist than those who focus on learning itself. Knowing that one has made a choice (owning the choice) can protect against the discouraging effects of negative feedback during the learning process, an effect that has been observed at the neurophysiological level (Murayama et al., 2015). It has been suggested that the longer-term effects of stereotype threat may be one cause of longstanding achievement gaps (Walton and Spencer, 2009). Neurophysiological evidence supports this understanding of the mechanisms underlying stereotype threat. Steele has noted that stereotype threat is most likely in areas of performance in which individuals are particularly motivated. When competition is using as a motivational strategy it arouse aspiration of wining, doing better than others.

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